The word “Thermidor” resonates with historical significance, often conjuring images of political upheaval, betrayal, and the inevitable pendulum swing that follows radical change. But what precisely does Thermidor signify? Beyond its literal origins, the term has evolved to represent a crucial juncture in revolutionary movements – a point where the revolution, having reached its peak intensity, begins to moderate, consolidate, and sometimes even revert to aspects of the old order. Understanding Thermidor provides valuable insight into the dynamics of revolution, power, and the often-unforeseen consequences of societal transformation.
The French Revolutionary Calendar and the 9th of Thermidor
To understand the meaning of Thermidor, it’s essential to first grasp its roots in the French Revolution. In 1793, the revolutionary government, seeking to break with the past and establish a new, rational order, introduced a new calendar. This calendar, designed by a commission led by Gilbert Romme, replaced the Gregorian calendar. It was based on a decimal system and featured months named after natural phenomena related to the seasons.
The new calendar began on September 22, 1792, the date of the proclamation of the First French Republic. The months were divided into three ten-day weeks called “décades,” and the remaining five or six days were dedicated to republican virtues.
“Thermidor” itself was the name assigned to the eleventh month of the French Republican calendar, spanning from July 19 to August 17 in the Gregorian calendar. Its name is derived from the Greek word “thermos, meaning “heat,” reflecting the hot summer season in France.
However, the term “Thermidor” gained its enduring significance not from its calendrical function, but from a specific event that occurred on the 9th of Thermidor, Year II (July 27, 1794) – the coup d’état that overthrew Maximilien Robespierre and ended the Reign of Terror.
The Fall of Robespierre: The 9th of Thermidor
Robespierre, a leading figure of the Committee of Public Safety, had become synonymous with the Reign of Terror. His relentless pursuit of revolutionary purity and his willingness to use extreme measures, including widespread executions, to suppress dissent, had created an atmosphere of fear and paranoia. Ironically, his policies, initially intended to save the Revolution from internal and external enemies, ultimately threatened to consume it.
By mid-1794, Robespierre’s authority had become increasingly autocratic. He alienated many of his former allies, who feared that they too would fall victim to his purges. A conspiracy began to brew within the National Convention, led by figures such as Jean-Lambert Tallien, Joseph Fouché, and Paul Barras. These individuals, motivated by a combination of self-preservation, ideological differences, and genuine concern about the direction of the Revolution, plotted to remove Robespierre from power.
On the 9th of Thermidor, the conspirators launched their coup. During a session of the National Convention, Tallien and others denounced Robespierre and his associates. Robespierre attempted to speak in his own defense, but his voice was drowned out by the shouts and jeers of his opponents. He was eventually arrested, along with his close allies, including Louis Antoine de Saint-Just and Georges Couthon.
The following day, Robespierre and his followers were executed without trial in the Place de la Révolution (now Place de la Concorde). The fall of Robespierre marked the end of the Reign of Terror and ushered in a new phase of the French Revolution.
The Thermidorian Reaction: A Shift Away From Radicalism
The period following Robespierre’s downfall is known as the Thermidorian Reaction. This period witnessed a significant shift away from the radical policies of the Reign of Terror. The Thermidorian Reaction was characterized by several key features:
Political Changes
The Thermidorian Reaction saw the dismantling of the institutions of the Reign of Terror. The Committee of Public Safety was weakened, and its powers were curtailed. The Revolutionary Tribunal, which had been responsible for the execution of thousands of people, was reformed and its activities were scaled back.
The Jacobin clubs, which had served as centers of revolutionary activism, were closed down. Many Jacobin leaders were arrested, imprisoned, or even executed.
The Thermidorian Convention, dominated by moderate republicans and former members of the Girondin faction, sought to establish a more stable and moderate form of government.
Economic Changes
The Thermidorian Reaction also brought about significant economic changes. The controlled economy of the Reign of Terror, with its price controls and rationing, was dismantled. The Thermidorians favored a more laissez-faire approach, allowing market forces to operate more freely.
This led to a period of economic instability and inflation, but also to increased economic activity and prosperity for some.
Social Changes
The Thermidorian Reaction also witnessed significant social changes. The emphasis on revolutionary virtue and austerity that had characterized the Reign of Terror was replaced by a more hedonistic and materialistic culture.
Luxury goods and entertainment became popular again, and there was a renewed emphasis on social status and distinction.
Many of the victims of the Reign of Terror were rehabilitated, and their families were compensated for their losses.
The Directory: A New Form of Government
The Thermidorian Reaction eventually led to the establishment of a new form of government known as the Directory in 1795. The Directory was a five-member executive body that shared power with a bicameral legislature.
The Directory was intended to be a more stable and moderate government than the Reign of Terror. However, it was plagued by corruption, political instability, and military defeats.
The Directory was eventually overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799, marking the end of the French Revolution.
Thermidor as a Metaphor: The Cooling Down of Revolutions
Beyond its specific historical context, the term “Thermidor” has taken on a broader metaphorical meaning. It is often used to describe a phase in revolutionary movements where the initial radical fervor begins to wane, and the revolution enters a period of consolidation, moderation, and even reaction.
In this broader sense, Thermidor does not necessarily imply a complete reversal of the revolution’s gains. Rather, it suggests a shift in emphasis from radical transformation to stability and order. The revolutionary ideals may still be present, but they are tempered by pragmatism and a desire to avoid further upheaval.
Several characteristics often mark a Thermidorian phase:
- Moderation: A shift away from extreme policies and a willingness to compromise with former opponents.
- Consolidation of Power: The emergence of a new elite that seeks to solidify its control over the state.
- Economic Stabilization: Efforts to restore economic order and promote growth.
- Social Normalization: A return to more traditional social norms and values.
- Suppression of Radical Elements: The marginalization and even persecution of those who continue to advocate for radical change.
Examples of Thermidor in Other Revolutions
The concept of Thermidor has been applied to other revolutions throughout history, although with varying degrees of accuracy and relevance. Here are a few examples:
The Russian Revolution
Some historians argue that the Stalinist era in the Soviet Union represented a Thermidorian reaction to the initial revolutionary fervor of the Bolshevik Revolution. Stalin’s consolidation of power, the suppression of dissent, and the emphasis on national unity and stability can be seen as parallels to the Thermidorian Reaction in France.
The Chinese Revolution
The period following the death of Mao Zedong and the rise of Deng Xiaoping is sometimes interpreted as a Thermidorian phase in the Chinese Revolution. Deng’s economic reforms, his opening up of China to the outside world, and his emphasis on economic development over ideological purity can be seen as a departure from the radical policies of the Maoist era.
The Iranian Revolution
Some observers have argued that the election of moderate presidents like Mohammad Khatami and Hassan Rouhani in Iran represented attempts to moderate the revolutionary fervor of the Islamic Revolution. However, these efforts have been met with resistance from hardline elements within the regime, making it difficult to definitively label this a Thermidorian phase.
Criticisms of the Thermidorian Concept
The concept of Thermidor is not without its critics. Some historians argue that it is an overly simplistic and deterministic model that fails to capture the complexities and nuances of revolutionary processes.
Others argue that the term is often used pejoratively to delegitimize attempts to moderate and consolidate revolutionary gains. They contend that such efforts are often necessary to prevent revolutions from descending into chaos and violence.
Furthermore, the application of the Thermidorian concept to different revolutions can be problematic, as each revolution has its own unique characteristics and trajectory. What may appear to be a Thermidorian reaction in one context may be something entirely different in another.
The Enduring Significance of Thermidor
Despite these criticisms, the concept of Thermidor remains a valuable tool for understanding the dynamics of revolutionary movements. It highlights the inherent tensions between radical change and stability, between revolutionary ideals and political realities.
Thermidor reminds us that revolutions are not static events, but rather dynamic processes that are subject to change, compromise, and even reversal. It cautions against the dangers of revolutionary excess and the importance of finding a balance between radical transformation and social order.
Understanding Thermidor allows us to analyze and interpret the course of revolutions with greater nuance and sophistication. It provides a framework for understanding how revolutions can evolve, adapt, and ultimately shape the societies they transform. It’s a reminder that revolutions rarely follow a linear path and are often subject to unintended consequences. Thermidor serves as a cautionary tale, highlighting the importance of pragmatism, compromise, and a willingness to adapt in the face of changing circumstances.
Ultimately, the meaning of Thermidor extends far beyond the specific events of the French Revolution. It serves as a powerful reminder of the complexities and contradictions inherent in all revolutionary movements, and the enduring human struggle to create a more just and equitable society. The concept remains relevant today, as we continue to grapple with the challenges of political and social transformation in a rapidly changing world. The Thermidorian moment is a critical juncture, defining whether a revolution solidifies into lasting progress or devolves into authoritarianism.
The study of Thermidor offers invaluable insights into the nature of power, the dynamics of social change, and the enduring quest for a better future. It highlights the cyclical nature of history and the constant interplay between revolution and reaction. By understanding the lessons of Thermidor, we can be better equipped to navigate the challenges of our own time and to build a more just and sustainable world.
What is the Thermidorian Reaction?
The Thermidorian Reaction refers to a phase in the French Revolution that began with the overthrow of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins on 9 Thermidor Year II (July 27, 1794). It marked a significant shift away from the radical, egalitarian, and violently repressive policies that had characterized the Reign of Terror. This reaction was driven by a combination of factors, including weariness with the Terror, the accumulation of enemies by Robespierre and his allies, and the desire for a more moderate form of government.
The immediate consequences of the Thermidorian Reaction included the execution of Robespierre and his close associates, the dismantling of the institutions of the Terror, and the release of political prisoners. More broadly, it represented a move towards a more conservative and bourgeois republic. Price controls were lifted, leading to inflation and economic hardship for the poor, and the power of the sans-culottes, the radical working class of Paris, was significantly diminished.
Who were the key figures involved in the Thermidorian Reaction?
The Thermidorian Reaction didn’t have a single leader, but rather was a coalition of individuals motivated by various factors, from fear of Robespierre to a genuine desire for a more moderate revolution. Some prominent figures included Paul Barras, Jean-Lambert Tallien, and Joseph Fouché, all of whom had played roles in the Terror but feared becoming victims themselves. These individuals orchestrated the coup against Robespierre and helped to shape the new political landscape.
Beyond the immediate conspirators, the Thermidorian Reaction also involved a broader shift in political power towards more conservative and bourgeois elements within the National Convention. Moderate deputies who had been sidelined during the Reign of Terror reasserted their influence. The reaction also saw the rise of new figures who were less committed to the radical ideals of the early revolution and more interested in consolidating power and wealth.
What were the main causes of the Thermidorian Reaction?
The primary cause of the Thermidorian Reaction was widespread discontent with the Reign of Terror. The relentless executions, the oppressive surveillance, and the economic hardships caused by price controls created a climate of fear and resentment. Many felt that the revolution had gone too far and that Robespierre’s pursuit of virtue had become tyrannical.
In addition to popular discontent, internal power struggles within the ruling Committee of Public Safety also contributed to the Thermidorian Reaction. Robespierre had made many enemies through his purges and increasingly authoritarian rule. Individuals like Tallien and Fouché, fearing for their own lives, saw an opportunity to seize power and overthrow him, thereby ending the Terror and securing their own positions.
How did the Thermidorian Reaction affect the Reign of Terror?
The Thermidorian Reaction effectively ended the Reign of Terror. The revolutionary tribunals, which had been responsible for thousands of executions, were dismantled. The Law of Suspects, which had allowed for the arbitrary arrest and detention of anyone suspected of counter-revolutionary activities, was repealed. The policies of dechristianization were also abandoned.
The period following Thermidor saw a wave of “white terror,” a backlash against the Jacobins and their supporters. Many former Jacobins were arrested, imprisoned, or even executed. This period was characterized by a desire to restore order and stability, albeit at the cost of some of the radical ideals of the early revolution. The emphasis shifted from radical equality to individual rights and property.
What were the long-term consequences of the Thermidorian Reaction for France?
The Thermidorian Reaction marked a turning point in the French Revolution, signaling a move away from radicalism and towards a more conservative republic. While it ended the Reign of Terror, it also led to instability and corruption. The Thermidorian regime struggled to maintain order and faced challenges from both royalists seeking to restore the monarchy and radical republicans who felt betrayed by the abandonment of revolutionary ideals.
Ultimately, the Thermidorian Reaction paved the way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. The Directory, the government established after Thermidor, proved to be weak and ineffective, creating a power vacuum that Napoleon was able to exploit. His coup d’état in 1799 brought an end to the revolutionary period and ushered in a new era of French history.
How is the term “Thermidor” used metaphorically in political discourse?
The term “Thermidor” is often used metaphorically to describe a phase in a revolution or radical movement where the initial fervor and idealism give way to a more moderate or conservative reaction. It signifies a retreat from the most extreme policies and a consolidation of power by more pragmatic or self-interested elements.
This metaphorical use of “Thermidor” highlights the cyclical nature of revolutions and the tendency for radical movements to eventually moderate or even reverse course. It serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of revolutionary excess and the potential for even the most radical movements to be undermined by internal divisions and shifting political tides. The term is often used to analyze and critique contemporary political movements, highlighting parallels with the French Revolution.
Did the Thermidorian Reaction benefit all segments of French society?
The Thermidorian Reaction did not benefit all segments of French society equally. While it brought an end to the Reign of Terror, which undoubtedly benefited those who had been targeted by the revolutionary tribunals, it also led to economic hardship for the poor. The lifting of price controls caused inflation and reduced the purchasing power of the working class.
The Thermidorian Reaction primarily benefited the bourgeoisie and those who had accumulated wealth during the revolution. They gained political influence and were able to consolidate their economic power. The sans-culottes, who had been a driving force behind the radical phase of the revolution, were marginalized and their political influence diminished. In essence, the Thermidorian Reaction marked a shift from a focus on equality to a focus on order and property, benefiting some at the expense of others.